Ancient & Medieval Terms

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A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T W

adarga: Spanish term for the heart-shaped or double oval-shaped shield used in Spain and Portugal throughout the medieval period, adopted from the Muslim berbers. It was principally used by jinetes, the characteristic medieval Iberian light cavalry. Click for image
angon: Heavy spear used primarily by western Germanic warriors of the migration period (250-600). Most were about as long as the warriors body, with the barbed iron head accounting for at least half the length. Click for image
antilabe: Cord or strap at the edge of the hoplite shield (aspis) which is gripped in the left hand. Click for image
arbalest: (also called: arbalete, alblast and arblast) Hand-held medieval European crossbow, distinguished from balista, which could be either a hand-weapon or a siege weapon. Crossbows were unknown in England prior to Norman conquest. Click for image
arbalest a cric: crossbow drawn by a rack and pinion, or cric
arbaleste a jalet: (pellet crossbow) crossbow with a long, light wooden stock, frequently ending in a ball or knob, and arranged to shoot stones or bullets instead of bolts. The string was double and had a small pouch in the middle to hold the missile.
arbalest a tour: A crossbow drawn by a windlass
arbrier: The stock of a crossbow
archer's ring (or thumb ring): Ring worn on right thumb (if shooting right-handed) in order to protect the thumb from the bowstring during release. Two basic types: Chinese, formed of a cylinder, often jade; and the Islamic, which has a triangular projection worn on the inside of the thumb, the part worn on the outside being quite narrow.
arcubalista: Early crossbow used by 5th century Roman infantry.
armins: velvet or cloth coverings for the shafts of pikes, halberds and similar weapons. They were primarily intended to keep the hand from slipping, but were later used mainly for ornament.
arquebus (or harquebus): originally a heavy match-lock gun, laterthe name was applied to wheel-lock guns, and finally came to mean a gun of fine workmanship as distinguished from the musket, or common militray arm. One of earliestmentions of the arquebus was of its use by the Swiss at the capture of Neuregensberg in 1386.
arrest: The lance rest; at first it did not support the lance, but distributed the shock over the breastplate
arrow: Missile, normally with a wooden shaft, a flight of feathers and a tip which was either hardened by burning or had a metal head. It was shot by a bow and could have considerable impact. Horn was often used to protect the nock (notch that fits the bowstring). Click for image
aspis: (Greek) shield, particularly a hoplite shield. The shield side meant the left side, and the depth of a formation was often expressed by the number of shields. Term also used for a body of hoplites. Click for image
artillery: Originally the term meant the "gyns", machines for throwing stones and other missiles. Later it was applied to cannon and all guns too large to be managed by one man.
baculum: Baton of command, have also been described as maces - although not necessarily the case.
Balearic sling: Stone throwing engine, noted for its rate of fire. It is thought that it might be an early counterweight trebuchet, but could also be related to the arcus belearis (Balearic bow) probably a mangonel operated on the crossbow principle.
balista: In medieval European warfare, either a siege engine or a crossbow, depending on the historical context. Both were tension weapons requiring a string to be drawn back and released. A variety of missiles could be used including large crossbow bolts and combustibles.
The engine was similar to a large crossbow, operated by a winch to draw back the string. A variant of the balista used the torsion of twisted ropes to power the bow arms. Click for image
ballista: Original name for a stone-shooting machine as opposed to a catapulta, an arrow- or bolt-shooting machine, in Roman warfare. The two words exchanged meaning during the Roman Empire, probably around the 1st century AD.
Rome was slow to adopt artillery, relying on Greek engineers to supply it when required. However, by the end of the Republic (1st century AD), artillery had become part of the standard equipment of the legions and at some point (according to Vegetius) the standard legionary artillery was set at 10 stone-throwing and 55 bolt-shooting machines.
baselard (or basilard): A short sword, or dagger, with a straight tapering blade, of the 13th-15th centuries. Often carried by civilians.
basket hilt: A sword hilt in which the hand is completely enclosed by a system of connected bars extending from the guard to the pommel.
bastard string: A string temporarily fastened by clamps to the bow of a crossbow so that it could be bent enough to permit the regular string to be put into place.
bastard sword: Sword with long straight blade, plain cross guard and rounded pommel of 15th and 16th centuries. Also known as hand-and-a-half sword as long grip allowed swordsman to use three fingers of second hand for extra power if required. Click for image
baton (or baston): A truncheon carried by a leader, and now the peculiar distinction of a field marshal.
battering ram: A heavy beam hung from an overhead frame and swung by the united efforts of several men. It was used to break in a wall or a gate. It is one of the oldest military engines and continued in use until cannon became sufficiently strong to be more effective. The men working it were usually protected by a movable roof. The striking end of the beam was usually shod with metal, frequently in the form of a ram's head, hence the name.
belfry: Mobile siege tower - served dual purpose: covering activity by besiegers against the lower part of the defensive wall, and providing a platform by which they could reach its top, usually by bridge. Belfries were usually taller than the walls themselves, to enable the besiegers to use missile weapons effectively against the defenders, and sometimes mounted throwing engines.
Belfries were usually built of wood, with the exterior protected against fire by skin coverings such as ox hides. Ladders were used for internal movements. Click for image
bolt (or quarrel): A crossbow missile. Early bolts were made of yew or ash, about 1 foot long with a tapered and flattened butt. Usually less than 84 g/3 oz. Head (pile) of bolt usually 4-sided and pyramidal metal. Like arrow, had a flight, commonly of goose wing feathers.
A vireton is a bolt made with a spiral flight of feathers - rotating it in flight and improving accuracy. Click for image
bow: Hand weapon used for shooting arrows. In simplest form consists of wood stave with a string attached to both ends. Pulling the string bends the stave; releasing the string shoots the arrow as the stave straightens. Click for image
Self bow = bow made from a single piece of wood
Built bow = a bow made from several pieces glued together
Backed bow = a bow made of bone or wood with sinew stretched on the back
Composite bow = a bow made of wood, horn and sinew.
bow, composite: Designed with multiple parts made from different types of wood and bone glued together to provide extra tension, the bow being bent back on itself in use. This gave an effective range of 200m/220 yards, absolute range of twice that distance.
In comparison, the self bow, made from a single piece of shaped wood was limited in range and penetrating power, having an effective distance of only 60m/65 yds.
bow, cross: Bow with a mechanism to draw back the string and a trigger to release it. Bow fixed to a stock fitted with a catch to hold the string in place, released by trigger. Bending the bow was initially done with hands and feet. Improvements included use of a stirrup fitted to the stock for placing the foot when drawing the bow. A metal claw (carried on the archer's belt) could be used to draw the sting. Other devices include the pulley, the goat's foot lever, the windlass and the cranequin. Steel bows were developed in the 15th century. Crossbow missile is bolt or quarrel. Click for image
bow, long: Longer form of ordinary wooden bow (length 5'-6'). Usually made of yew with hemp for string. Click for more info
bow, short: Composite bow with the stave in three pieces fixed together with glue, sinew and horn. Common weapon for horse warriors. Click for image
buckler: Small round shield, used from 13th-17th centuries. Most commonly used for fencing, it was designed to be used with an outstretched arm and was light with a central grip.
caltrop: Metal object with spikes pointing upwards that was placed in a ditch to hamper attackers, or a globular metal object with projecting spikes that was used in battle. The latter type was fixed into the ground with one spike and projected upwards to halt enemy cavalry. Click for image
carroballista: Light field artillery that was easy to move, introduced by Romans circa 100 AD. Worked by torsion and had two arms that moved horizontally like a crossbow; it was mounted on wheels.
carroccio: Wagon bearing banners of patron saints, serving as command centre and rallying point.
couched lance: Technique of holding lance firmly under the right armpit and resting it on the saddle bow in order to unite the impetus of the rider and charging horse to deliver a blow.
cranequin: Device for drawing a crossbow. Developed in 15th century, during later part of crossbow use. Consisted of metal ratchet bar with a winder that had cogs. Archer could wind the handle to draw back the crossbow string. Light and easy to use but slow, it became popular for use in hunting from horseback.
dolabra: Pickaxe used by Roman legions for constructing field fortifications, siege ramps and camps - but not really a weapon.
enarmes: Straps for the forearm and hand on the inside of a shield. Comparatively rare, as most shields were held by a handgrip.
Appeared on European kite-shaped cavalry shields in 11th century, continued to be standard method of holding European heater- or flat-iron-shape shields during later periods.
espringal (or springald): Siege engine, probably with a wooden arm drawn backwards against torsion and released to strike a bolt placed in the frame. The arm would have been drawn back by a windlass. Term may also have been used to describe a hurling machine.
essedarius: Chariot or charioteer used by Celts to attack cavalry. Provides mobile fighting base for a warrior who used the chariot box as a platform for throwing javelins before dismounting and fighting on foot. It was pulled by two horses and controlled by a driver.
estoc: A sword (from the 13th to 17th centuries) with a long, narrow, quadrangular blade intended solely for thrusting . The earlier ones were carried hung from a saddle when on horseback, or passed through rings on the belt when on foot. They had no scabbards. Later they were carried in scabbards like other swords.
falcata: Short, single-edged, cut and thrust sword, the Spanish version of the Greek kopis, used from 6th century BC to 3rd AD.
falchion: Curved short sword or dagger favoured by archers. It had a wide blade towards the point, with a convex edge and a concave back.
falx: Forward curved single-edged two-handed slashing sword used by the Dacians circa 1st century AD. Scythe-like blade attached to long handle.
flail: Bohemian weapon based on agricultural flail, used for winnowing grain. Ball and chain attachments usually replaced the original wooden end of the weapon.
flyssa: National sword of the Islamic Kaybeles of North Africa. Has long straight, single-edged blade with a long point and a pommel in the shape of a stylised horse's head.
framea: Simple spear used by early Germans.
francisca: Hatchet used as a weapon by the Germans of the migration period (250-600). Could be thrown at an opponent or retained for use as a sidearm.
gerrhon: Greek term for shields made of reeds, canes or wickerwork.
gisarme: Infantry polearm. Name dates from 12th century and probably represents range of weapon types including single-edged bill or halberd, fork and pike.
gladius: General term for the legionary sword of Roman republic and early empire (300 BC-200 AD). Replaced by spatha.
gladius hispaniensis: (spanish sword) legionary sword of late Roman republic (200 BC - 25 AD). Metal framed scabbard, suspended from belt on right side of the body. A long-pointed, slightly waisted cut-and-thrust weapon was gradually replaced by the short-pointed straight-edged Pompeian sword (essentially a hacking weapon) in 1st century AD, in turn superceded by spatha.
glaive: Polearm, usually consisting of large, single-edged, leaf-shaped blade used by foot-soldiers.
goat's foot lever: Device for operating a crossbow, introduced in mid-14th century. Looks like a goat's cloven foot. Worked with a purpose made crossbow that had pins projecting from each side of the stock. The lever had dividing claws at one end that could be fitted under the string. The lever was rested over the stock, pivoting on the pins. By pressing the handle, the lever pivoted and the string could be drawn back with ease.
goedendag: 4' long polearm in the form of heavy wooden club, tipped with iron band and spike. Used by Flemish against French around 1300. Click for more info
Greek fire: Combustible material particularly used against wooden ships or fortifications. Like a flame thrower, it could be aimed, usually through a tube, and would explode on impact. The main ingredient was naphtha or crude oil.
guige: Strap fitted to the inside of a shield for suspension over the shoulder, used in Europe from 11th-15th centuries.
halberd: Infantry weapon widely used from 14th century, when infantry armies became dominant. Consisted of wooden staff with a distinctive blade, one side of which was an axe, the other a pick. Shaft head also extended as a spike. Length of around 6'.
heater shield: Shield with a straight or slightly curved top and two curved sides meeting in a point at the bottom. Used during 11th and 12th centuries. It was strapped to the forearm or over the shoulder and covered from shoulder to mid-thigh.
helepolis: (Greek "city taker") multi-storey siege tower on wheels, fitted with catapults and drawbridges.
hoplite sword: Most common sword of 9th to 3rd centuries BC. Blade normally waisted from its maximum width just before it tapered to a point. Basically a slashing weapon weighted towards the point, but many examples are long cut-and-thrust weapons. A few are short and designed only for thrusting. Blade lengths range from 32-70 cm / 12.5-27.5 inches.
incendiary weapons: Barrels of burning pitch were dropped from castle battlements (often through specially designed brattices or machicolation. Incendiary missiles were often hurled by throwing engines, and fire arrows were commonly employed. See also Greek fire.
kite shield: Slightly convex shield with a rounded top and elongated bottom to protect the legs of foot soldiers or mounted knights. Used in the 11th and 12th centuries. Had a handgrip and a neckstrap in order to be slung over the shoulders or across the back.
lance: Cavalry weapon with wooden shaft and, usually, a metal head. It was originally thrown or thrust overarm. Later, development of stirrup allowed rider to brace against impact - lance was couched, tucked under the arm, and used for piercing in a charge. Lance diverged from spear-like shape, tending to be longer and thicker with a specially formed grip. In jousting tournaments, lances were sometimes blunted or given special non-lethal heads. A shorter lance was useful for cavalry tactics including dismounting to fight on foot. In later medieval period, lance-rests were fixed to the breastplate - could bear weight of lance as required.
mangonel: Stone throwing engine. Specifically an engine with a wooden arm ending in a spoon-shape on which the stone projectile was placed. Operated by torsion of twisted ropes, the arm pulled back and released to impact against a crossbeam, throwing the stone forward on a low projectory.
mantlet: A covering used as a mobile shelter behind which defensive walls could be approached. Light enough to be carried overhead and give protection from above. Also built around weapons and siege engines like a wooden skirt, to give protection. A mantlet wall was a secondary defensive wall around a tower.
misericorde: Dagger used to strike a final blow and mercifully kill a seriously wounded opponent. Widely used from the 14th century, normally held with point projecting downwards from hand. Usually a straight dagger without a guard; blade had a triangular section and only one cutting edge. Often decorated with such scenes as the "dance of death".
nawak: Arrow guide used by Sassanian Persian archers to shoot short, light darts. It was a grooved length of wood held projecting backwards from the grip of the bow to enable archer to use darts too short to reach from bow to string when the bow was drawn. May be similar to Byzantine solenarion.
onager: Stone-throwing catapult used in the Roman army, so named because it had a kick like the wild ass of that name. Developed by the 4th century, was a powerful war machine and important part of Roman army's siege train.
pavise: Large rectangular shield used by infantry, often tapering slightly towards the top and fitted with a prop so that it could stand by itself. Appeared in the 14th century for use by infantry archers and crossbowmen, and sometimes by spear-armed infantry (pavisiers in France) whose job was to protect missile troops.
petrary: (Latin petra = stone) stone throwing engine of the 11th and 12th centuries. Term often interchangeable with mangonel.
porpax: (Greek) central armband of a hoplite shield, through which the left arm was thrust to the elbow. Click for image
quintain: A post with an object attached as a target for tilting practice with a couched lance. It was sometimes able to swivel on impact. Occasionally consisted of a dummy in a hauberk and shield. Use in 12th century seems to have quickly followed the development of the charge with couched lances in warfare.
ricasso: Blunt section of a sword blade next to the hilt, which could be gripped by the forefinger to increase blade control. First appeared in the 15th century, and was usual by evolution of the rapier in the 16th century.
scorpio: Small rapid-fire ballista (stone throwing machine) used mainly by Romans in 1st and 2nd centuries BC.
scutum: Curved shield used by Roman legionnaires from mid-republic to the 2nd century AD. Semicylindrical in shape, gave better protection than flat shield and enabled Romans to fight in loose formation. During Republic (509-27 BC) was generally oval in shape but rectangular by the 1st century AD.
shamshir: Scimitar-style sword characteristic of southern and central Asia and the Middle East, used from 1500 BC to present day. Curved blade with a single edge tapering to a point, and a hilt in the shape of an inverted L, with a cross guard strengthened by langets. Designed for use as a light cavalry sword.
shuriken: Japanese throwing knife, usually of one piece, made of steel and triangular in section. Used in close combat, mostly by non-samurai.
siphon: Weapon used on Byzantine ships to shoot inflammable Greek fire against enemy vessels. Apparently was a brass tube into which the fuel was sucked and expelled by a pair of bellows.
solenarion: Early form of crossbow used by Byzantines.
spatha: Slashing sword used by Roman cavalry during early empire (I AD), evolved from the Celtic longsword, became more generally used in the 2nd century, and by the 3rd century "spatha" was a general term for any sword. Blade lengths varied greatly, some had parallel sides while others were tapered. Suspended on left side of waist.
stakes: Mobile field defence system used by English archers, consisting of sharpened stakes driven into the ground, which enabled them to hold the line against cavalry attack. First used at Agincourt in 1415 when Henry V ordered his archers to cut 2 m (6 ft) stakes, sharpened at both ends, and drive them into the ground. Even the famed English archers could not stand unprotected against a cavalry charge, and usually took cover behind fixed defences, limiting their mobility. Portable sharpened stakes forming a barrier against attacking cavalry gave them new mobility.
tabar: (pl. tabarzin) Persian term for a "saddle axe", a short axe used by cavalry throughout Islamic world.
talwar: Curved sword used by all types of soldiers in south Asian armies. Distinguished from shamshir by pattern of its hilt, which ends in a disc-shaped pommel, and by the generally uniform width of its blade. The curve may vary from almost straight to a crescent shape.
target (or targe): Round shield held with enarmes rather than a boss for carrying, used throughout Europe. Term first recorded about 1400.
trebuchet: Missile launching weapon, with a beam pivoted on an axle and terminating in a sling. Invented in China between 5th and 3rd centuries BC, reached Europe around 500 AD. Most powerful trebuchets could launch missiles weighing a tonne or more. Click here for a picture..
war axe: At first the ordinary hatchet or axe of civil life was used as a weapon, but special varieties were soon developed for fighting. war axes were of all sizes from light weapons intended for throwing to heavy pole axes requiring the use of both arms. The blade is geneally balanced by a hammer head of point on the opposite side of the handle, although double bladed axes have also been used in many ages and countries.